text:
The etymological meaning of the word audiovisualogy is linked, on the one hand, with the term audiovisual, referring to the means jointly related to the view and the hearing and, on the other hand, to the suffix logy, that refers to logos, and that in Greek means _treaty, knowledge_. Therefore, AUDIOVISUALOGY must be understood as a study of the audiovisual media that, due to its broad meaning, could be related to either the cinema, the television or any other art.

It is also feasible to understand it as the means and art that combine fixed projected images (slides or digital support) in its _montage_, accompanied by sounds of a different nature, therefore meaning a language different from the film, since it does not use the image in motion.

Although it was known in France as diaporama (slideshow)[1] in 1950, its current name of audiovisual art is truly accepted in many fields, such as in some institutions in the United Kingdom, like photo clubs and others with a high artistic level, as the _Royal Photography Society_, among others.

From this perspective, it is also possible to develop a theory about the audiovisual art, thus defining it as the language that combines still images (pictures with sound), in a montage that by its condition is displayed as in the cinema, in a room designed for that purpose.

Historical background

The audiovisual art constitutes a means of expression which came before the cinema. In fact, projections of still images are really old. In 1660, Athanasius Kircher invented one of the first _magic lanterns_ that worked as a real projector, which had a great diffusion afterwards.

Moreover, from another point of view, the prehistoric man could be considered as the first audiovisual spectator of humanity, who contemplated the static skies and the landscape in amazement, along with the sounds of nature coming from the animals and the storms. The cave paintings inside the caves ended up representing the first screen of the humanity in the dark inside of a venue.

Much later, Louis Daguerre and Charles Marie Bouton were the first creators of the panoramas, i.e., large lounges with painted curtains, on which the light was projected in a zenith shape to give the illusion of reality. In 1822, the diorama,[2] built by both of them, became the ultimate expression of the current audiovisual art, since it modified the panorama by the layout of several overlapped curtains with themes of nature, which produced a changing effect when moving from one image to another by the dissolve effect, all this accompanied by sounds with a principle of action, development and final parts.[3]

The audiovisual concept as an art

One of the main foundations that defines this means as an art is its connection to painting. If the conditions are given like that, and the accompanying sound represents an expression which is also aesthetic, the attitude of contemplation separates the audiovisual concept from the physical world of the movement in the cinema and other means.

The attitude of contemplation of the fine arts necessarily implies a spiritualization of the emotions, where the classic spirit prevails.[4]

Jean Leirens had already expressed that there are two ways to represent time. One is by representing it as it is, and the other one means exceeding it. He stated that the second way belongs precisely to the poetic creation.[5]

Eugenio Montes, when writing its _Elementos of Filmología_ [Film-making Elements], announced that the calling of the classic period consisted of the stillness, since only things that are quiet consisted of something. On the contrary, when they moved, they already seemed inconsistent to the classic period. Because of this, the ancient spirit culminates in the sculptural attitude of the best gesture, set under a kind of eternity. That is what makes the difference with the cinema, which culminates its expression in the art of movement.

Another reason that justifies the audiovisual concept as an art is the use of the music that, represented accordingly with the still images, creates a new aesthetic expression by setting a different path, perhaps fairly unexplored, further accentuating the attitude of contemplation.

The audiovisual montage

Considering these principles, the audiovisual montage may refer to two aspects: the intrinsic one, which alludes to the aesthetic connection of a shot with the next one, thus obtaining different forms, such as the analogy, the contrast and others. The other aspect is the extrinsic montage, which is the method of association point between a shot and the next one and that may be, for example, by a cut or by the so-called dissolve effect or lap dissolve between a still image and the one after it.

Like in the cinema, the intrinsic montage methods are very varied and represent a substantial element in the analysis of the construction of the audiovisual language.[6]

Differences with the cinema

Analysis of the movement in the audiovisual art and the cinema

While the audiovisual art is always connected with a past of unfathomable character, the cinema can never be separated from the present time, because it depicts its physical representation. The few films that tend to an evocation of the still image do it only sometimes, to then return to what is their natural environment.

In the audiovisual art, the only movement expressed is the extrinsic montage of change from one shot to the next one, and while in the cinema this also happens, the internal movement of objects and characters of each one of the corresponding shots is added to its intrinsic montage, a movement that does not occur in the audiovisual art.[7]

While the development of the aesthetic of the movement has for the cinema its purpose as an artistic means of expression,[8] in the audiovisual art the method is a different one, more related to the contemplation.

Sources

-   Arnheim, Rudolf. _Film as Art_. Buenos Aires. Editorial Paidós. Buenos Aires. 1986.
-   Jorge Luis Farjat. _Audiovisual Theory_ Teoría Audiovisual. Colección de Arte y Memoria Audiovisual. Buenos Aires. 2004.
-   Jorge Luis Farjat. _Audiovisualogy. The Audiovisual as Art and Mean of Communication_. Audiovisualogía. El audiovisual como arte y medio de comunicación. Colección de arte y memoria audiovisual. Buenos Aires. 1979.
-   Jorge Luis Farjat.The audiovisual art: photographs projected together with sound. El arte audiovisual. Fotografías proyectadas unidas al sonido. Colección de arte y memoria audiovisual. Buenos Aires. 2015.
-   Millingham, F. Porque nació el cine. Buenos Aires. Editorial Nova. 1945
-   Rafaél C. Sánchez. Montaje cinematográfico. Arte en movimiento. Editorial La Crujía. Buenos Aires. 2003.

Links

Category:Audio engineering Category:Visual arts theory

[1] The reinvention of the slideshow as photographic formula.

[2] Daguerre and his Diorama in the 1830s: some financial announcements.

[3] Jorge Luis Farjat. _Audiovisualogy. The Audiovisual as Art and Mean of Communication_ Audiovisualogía. El audiovisual como arte y medio de comunicación. Colección de arte y memoria audiovisual. 1979.

[4] Jorge Luis Farjat. Audiovisual Theory. _Teoría Audiovisual. Colección de Arte y Memoria Audiovisual_. 2004.

[5] Jean Leirens. Le Cinema Et Le Temps Paperback – 1954

[6] Karel Reisz.The technique of film editing.Focal, 2003

[7] “Montaje Cinematográfico, Arte de Movimiento” Rafael C. Sanchez. La Crujía. 2015

[8] Raymond Spottiswoode.A Grammar of the film.1965

title: Audiovisualogy

question: What is Audiovisualogy?

answer: The study of audiovisual media.

question: What is the term Audiovisualogy derived from?

answer: On the one hand, with the term audiovisual, referring to the means jointly related to the view and the hearing and, on the other hand, to the suffix logy, which refers to logos, and that in Greek means treaty, or knowledge.

question: What was Audiovisualogy known as in France?

answer: Diaporama.

question: Who invented one of the first projectors?

answer: Athanasius Kircher.

question: Write a ~1 sentence summary.

answer: This article is about audiovisualogy, a field which studies audio-visual media.


split: train

text:
All Because of Me
   Just one more minute, one more moment. It was all I needed, and I blew it. She’s gone, forever, all because of me. Our eyes will never meet, our hands never interlock, our love never shared ever again. And it’s all because of me. She was my entire life, my whole inspiration and purpose in life. I lived every day of my being just to spend even a single minute with her. She was my definition of beauty, for no one to ever come close to. And now I have nothing and nobody else, in the world right enough for me. And it’s all because of me.
   My senior year of high school was picturesquely perfect. I was a god who walked those halls, merely among common men, of those whom were barely worthy enough to bow down to me. Except something felt missing. For all the fun I was having, it just wasn’t satisfying, and for all I tried and tried it never would come to me why. That was, of course, until I met her. The way she could light up the room was indescribable. She literately made me freeze in my tracks, made me forget everything, and just know her. But no one else noticed this. So I saw it as a blessing, we were destined to be together and nothing would get in our way.
   Our simple passings in the hallways turned into eye contact, but awkward at first. Oh how her eyes shuttered like a pristine lake, glimmering like the sapphires given to her by birth. These very eyes starred into the depths of my soul and dug into me like a harpoon, latched in and never came out. So I pulled my churning stomach together, and went for it. The girl I had merely thought about, never talked to before, was not startled at all by my contact. She seemed to expect it, and very enthusiastically went on our first of many dates that Friday night. As the time passed, I fell in love with just everything about her; how she parted her golden locks, which clothes she wore on what days of the week, how she giggled when I tickled her, and how she breathed deep when I hugged her. But this the proverbial iceberg, I had only met the surface of this deep, dark twisted beauty.
   One late night, after going to a friends party, she broke down in the car on our way to her house. I didn’t understand what was going on, and any words I tried to say to comfort her were ignored. She just wept and wept, for no apparent reason at all. Finally, when we arrived at her house, she looked up from her tear soaked knees and make eye contact with me. Our eyes stayed there, interwoven, for God knows how long. All I could do was pull her in, hold her tight, and promise her that she could tell me anything in the entire world, and that no matter what happened I would be there for her in an instant. We spent 2 more hours that night just sitting in my car, talking. The love of my life opened up a wound that no one had ever cared enough to examine before, and she told me about how depression had affected her. She spent her nights, locked in her own room, cutting herself as she wept. The pain was the only way she knew how to come back from her nightmare of a life. Her parents were clueless, and she was lost in a deep sea of terror and confusion and fear all mixed into one grand tempest of her life. She feared for her very own life, because she never knew when or what would set off her sadness, her emptiness. She tired to stay strong that entire conversation, but I knew on the inside it took her all the courage and trust that was encompassed in her small and delicate body to tell me her deepest and darkest secrets. It was at that moment that I realized my own purpose-it was to save this girls life.
   After that night, things would never be the same. She expected me to abandon her, to throw her off like an outcast. But I didn’t, and she became my obelisk that I put all my energy and time into, and I knew that God intended me on saving her. Months passed, and she showed progress. I became a crutch for her to lean on, in times of trouble, and she went an entire month without touching that unforgiving blade. Then, one night, my phone rang. All I could hear was her, sobbing with a waterfall down her face, telling me to come over as soon as I could, because she had lost it. She had her father’s revolver held up to her head, minutes away from her life ending in a pull of a trigger. I bolted to my Dad’s car, the closest and fastest way I could think of to get to her, and left without a word to my family. I sped through the streets, taking every single way I could to save even just a second, because it could be the difference. I approached a stop sign, and after a split second decisions, stopping at this sign became a definite no. So I blew right through it, and then-nothing. The next thing I know, I am at the gates of Heaven, being told the story of my life and death to see if I am worth of this eternal life. It turned out that I was t-boned by a drunk driver who also ran that fateful intersection. I died on impact, but I will never be told if my angel made it that night. I will never know. And it’s all because of me.

title: All Because of Me

question: What was causing the depression that made the narrator's girlfriend cut herself?

answer: Unknown.

question: Why was the narrator's girlfriend preparing for him to leave her after her confession about self-harm?

answer: Probably because she is used to that happening after telling people about what she is going through.


text:
Malaga and Barcelona clashed at La Rosaleda last night in the first of three games in ten days for the clubs with the sides meeting in the forthcoming Copa del Rey tie.

The first blow in this triple header went to Barcelona. Given the display that Barcelona produced, few would now bet against a clean sweep of three successive victories against the Andalusian’s.

LINE UPS

There were two changes to the Malaga side following their 1-0 loss away to Deportivo. Jesus Gamez was replaced by Sergio Sanchez at right back and the defensive midfielder Jeremy Toulalan came in for the more offensive Portillo in midfield.

[Malaga Starting Line Up]

Malaga Starting Line Up

Pellegrini chose to use a double pivot in midfield to try and compete against Barcelona.

There was just one change to the Barcelona side that had dispatched Espanyol so convincingly last week with Mascherano replacing Puyol in central defence.

[Barcelona Starting Line Up]

Barcelona Starting Line Up

Iniesta continued in the attacking left hand position with Cesc accommodated in midfield.

THE MALAGA APPROACH

_“We need to start the game convinced Barça can lose. We will have to play a great game. If we still lose, fine.”_

Pellegrini

The Chilean was quite clear pre-match what he expected from his side and they tackled the challenge with the style we have come to expect from a Pellegrini side with a twist. With Roque Santa Cruz as the central striker, Malaga had a physical reference point in attack who could be used to hold the ball up and win aerial battles.

It worked to a degree. Santa Cruz won a number of headers and was able to retain a presence in attack but his skills were diminished when he moved wide lacking the pace and mobility of a Saviola.

Furthermore, he never managed a header in the opposition box. He was operating deep and looking to find Joaquin and Isco from flick-ons. Isco had one of his quietest games of the season whilst Joaquin offered a number of surging runs but lacked quality in the final third.

The remainder of the Malaga team had a familiar look to it. Although employing a double pivot of Toulalan and Camacho, the home side still maintained their customary short passing game.

During the defensive phase, the side dropped back to a 4-4-1-1 with Santa Cruz left upfield and supported by Isco. Joaquin was always prepared to join them. The remaining seven players performed the defensive function. By leaving players in attack, Malaga prevented Barcelona from becoming encamped in their half of the pitch, always weary to the threat posed by _los bocquernos_.

The effort required to sustain a challenge against Barcelona inevitably took it’s toll and tiredness set in enabling Barcelona to dominate much of the second half.

THE MIDFIELD BATTLE

The game opened with both sides seeking to impose their style on the opposition. Both teams were pressing the opposition goalkeeper when in position forcing long kick outs. With the quality on both sides, winning the midfield battle would be key. Early on Malaga competed well and forced Barcelona back. It is unusual to see a Barcelona side defend with the entire team back but that occurred during the first half.

The diagram below shows the average positions for the players with Malaga in blue and Barcelona in red:-

The Malaga players are clustered vertically whilst the Barcelona midfield and full backs are positioned horizontally. With Messi drifting laterally in front it creates ideal passing triangles.

The position of Dani Alves is extremely high, almost level with Pedro. Iniesta and Cesc are side by side, ready to swap places as the situation develops.

Sanchez was often isolated at right back with Joaquin further forward and cutting inward. Such a move simply aided Barcelona’s left.

LEFT, LEFT, LEFT

Against Espanyol, the interplay and positional changing of Iniesta and Cesc was a key component of the victory. These players linked yet again against Malaga to provide Barcelona with an alternative to the reliance upon the right side of the team where Pedro, Messi, primarily, and Alves operate.

The above heat map shows the tendency for attacks entering the penalty area to be on the left hand side. It’s a theme that has been developing recently and only looks like increasing further through the combination play of Iniesta, Cesc and Alba.

The lack of penetration on the right is heightened by the tendency for Pedro to drive diagonally inward and act as a No9 when required. It leaves Dani Alves alone to patrol the right flank.

Iniesta has previously spoken of not fully enjoying the wide left role but there is now a major difference with the interchanging:-

_“Playing at different position? Main thing is you feel good. We try to switch positions, the team does well, that’s what matters.”_

Iniesta

THE GOALS

With the game finely balanced although Barcelona were enjoying more possession, the opening goal would be pivotal. That it arose via a defensive blunder considering the quality on offer was a surprise. Camacho hit a back pass to Cabellero failing to see that Messi was some way behind the Malaga defence. The forward was able to intercept the pass and round Cabellero before slotting home.

Fabregas scored shortly after half time. As with all Pellegrini teams, Malaga hold a well organised defensive line and attempt to stay relatively high rather than falling back. This time however, Weligton dropped deeper than his team mates and Fabregas was able to run in behind Sanchez for the second goal. The real moment of genius here though was the chipped pass from Messi, weighted perfectly for Fabregas to run onto.

The goal was further evidence of the positional changes which Barcelona can now utilise. Iniesta was supposedly on the wide attacking left position, but at the goal he was in a central position and Cesc Fabregas was wide on the left. The constant movement and interplay making it increasingly difficult for opponents to successfully defend. This level of understanding comes to fruition after a considerable time period. It’s not easily learned.

The second goal killed the game to a certain extent. Barcelona dominated possession and Malaga only offered minimal threat sporadically, both teams sensing that the contest was over. It led to a situation of less pressure for Barcelona and some fantastic midfield passing movements helped by their horizontal positioning noted above.

Barcelona now also possess the ability to attack teams quickly during transitions. The qualities have always existed but are now being employed. In the 63 minute, Barcelona attacked swiftly following a Malaga corner with Pique leading the break.  This has been an underused weapon within the arsenal for some time but there are signs it is being used more frequently now.

The third and final goal for Barcelona was an individual effort from Thiago. Collecting a throw in on the right, he easily evaded poorly attempted tackles from Iturra and Camacho before drilling the ball low past Cabellero.

Barcelona has now gone nine games home and away without defeat against Malaga with Messi scoring ten goals in his last ten games against _los bocquernos_.

Buonanotte scored a consolation goal, a lovely free kick curled over the defensive wall. It was a deserved goal considering their efforts.

CONCLUSIONS

Malaga suffer back to back league defeats and, more importantly, become caught up in a battle to secure the final Champions League berth. Whilst the loss was disappointing, Dimechelis was quick to recognise the superiority of Barcelona:-

_“Honestly, in the second half Barcelona made me want to applaud them.”_

An unprecedented league campaign for Barcelona thus far. Eighteen wins and a solitary draw in their nineteen matches to date. Vilanova has already acknowledged that a repeat of such form in the second half of the season is unlikely but given their recent form, could Barcelona at least remain unbeaten for the duration of the season?

question: Which two teams clashed?

answer: Malaga and Barcelona.

question: Where did they clash?

answer: La Rosaleda.

question: To whom did the first blow in the triple header go?

answer: Barcelona.

question: What were the changes to the Malaga side following their 1-0 loss away to Deportivo?

answer: Jesus Gamez was replaced by Sergio Sanchez and Jeremy Toulalan came in for the more offensive Portillo in midfield.

question: Write a ~2 sentence summary.

answer: The article summarizes a soccer game between Malaga and Barcelona at La Roselda. It describes the various players and moves that were made in the game.


text:
TRIGONIULIDAE, is a family of round-backed millipedes of the order Spirobolida. The family includes 171 species belongs to 25 genera.[1]

Genera

-   _Acanthiulus_
-   _Ainigmabolus_
-   _Apeuthes_
-   _Cairibolus_
-   _Chersastus_
-   _Cingalobolus_
-   _Decelus_
-   _Epombrophilus_
-   _Eucarlia_
-   _Lankabolus_
-   _Leptogoniulus_
-   _Litobolus_
-   _Marshallbolus_
-   _Phagostrophus_
-   _Plokamostrophus_
-   _Prionopeza_
-   _Speleostrophus_
-   _Spirostrophus_
-   _Sympastrophus_
-   _Thrinciulus_
-   _Trigoniulus_
-   _Trucobolus_
-   _Variulus_
-   _Zygostrophus_

[1]

title: Trigoniulidae

question: What is Trigoniulidae?

answer: Trigoniulidae is a family of round-backed millipedes.

question: How many species of round-backed millipedes exist?

answer: 171 species.

question: The species belong to how many genera?

answer: 25 genera.

question: Name a few genera.

answer: Decelus, Cairibolus, Variulus, and Litobolus.

question: Write a ~1 sentence summary.

answer: A Wikipedia page on the different species of round-backed millipedes.


text:
On the other side of our Human World, there was a Monster World.

There was a young monster named Davi.  Davi was a lonely boy.  He had　seven　brothers, but he always stayed home alone.

Davi cried everyday.  He wanted to make friends.

Davi went to talk to his grandfather, who was the guard of the gate　which connects　Human World and Monster World.

Davi asked his grandfather, "I want to go to Human World.  I don't　have any friends here.  Maybe I can make friends over there."

Gradfather said "No, it's too dangerous.  No one in Human World likes Monsters.  You won't make any friends there."

But Davi went "Nobody in Monster World likes me anyway.  I want to at least try making friends in Human World!"

Grandfather decided to allow Davi 3 days in Human World, and gave Davi 3 gold coins, and told him "These coins may help you when you are in trouble."

Davi thanked his grandfather, and went through the gate.

Davi walked through the dark...

Davi landed on the street.  He was amazed at the sun, the sky, the　tall trees, and the houses!

Davi saw a college dormitory in which college girls were petting a　cat.

Davi sneaked into the dormitory and talked to the cat.　"Mr!" said Davi.  "How can I make friends with humans?"

" Meow! " answered Mr. Cat.  "I am not going to tell you　because you are a Monster.  We don't like monsters.  But I see you have　three gold coins in your pocket.  If you give me one coin, I'll answer　your question."

Davi gave him one gold coin.  Then Mr. Cat went "Ok!  All I do is　mew and purr at people's feet."

Davi said "Thank you, Mr. Cat!"

Davi approached the college girls, who were busy chattering with each other, and purred and mewed at their feet.  The college girls turned around, and...

"AAARRRGGGHHH!!!  Monster!!!"  The college girls screamed in horror, and ran out of the building!

Davi was left alone in the dormitory.  He walked out on the street, and he cried and cried and cried all night long.

On the second day, Davi saw two young boys playing with a dog in a house.

Davi sneaked into the house, and talked to the Dog. "Mr!" said Davi.  "How can I make friends with Humans?"

" Arf!" answers Mr. Dog.  "I am not going to tell you because you are a monster.  We don't monsters.  But I see you have two gold coins in your pocket.  If you give me one coin, I'll be happy to answer your question."

So Davi gave him one coin.  Then Mr. Dog went "Okay!  All I do is bow-wow, and lick people's faces."  "Thank you, Mr. Dog!" said Davi.

Davi approached the two young boys, and suddenly licked their faces and BOW-WOWED!!

"AAARRRGGGHHH!!! MONSTER!!"  cried the two young boys.  They screamed in horror and ran out of the building!

Davi was left alone in the house.  He walked out on the street, and he cried and cried and cried all night long.

On the third day, Davi saw a huge house in which an old blind lady was feeding a small bird in a cage.

Davi sneaked into the house, and talked to the bird. "Mrs!" said Davi.  "How can I make friends with humans?"

"Chirp!" answered Mrs. Bird.  "I am not going to tell you because you are a Monster.  We don't Monsters.  But I see you have one gold coin in your pocket.  If you give me the coin, I'll be happy to answer your question."

So Davi gave her his last gold coin.  Then Mrs. Bird says "Okay!  All I do is chirp and sing a song!"

Davi started singing a song.  Then...

"Where does this come from?" the old blind lady approached Davi.  Davi was so happy.  "This is the most beautiful song I have ever heard,"said Old Blind Lady.

Then she touched Davi's face.  "Who are you? What is this?  Could this be a... AAARRRGGGHHH!!! Monster!!!!"  The Old Blind Lady screamed in horror, and fainted dead!

Davi was left alone once again.  He walked out on the street, and he cried and cried and cried all night long.

Davi went back to the gate.  He was very sad.  The trees, the sun, the sky didn't amaze Davi anymore.

Davi met his grandfather at the gate.  Grandfather went "Why are you crying?"  Then Davi answered "I tried really hard to make friends with humans, and asked Mr. Cat, Mr. Dog and Mrs. Bird for advise, and I followed their good advice, but nobody liked
me.  Nobody cared about me anywhere.  I'll be alone for the rest of my life.  Nobody likes me!"

Then grandfather answered "It takes so much courage just to go to Human World.  And you were on your own Davi.  You are the most courageous Monster I have ever seen.  Everytime you cried, you learned to be stronger.  You don't need anyone else."

Davi listened to his grandfather.  "Now go home, Davi," said grandfather.

Davi walked back to his house, and opened the door, then...

Davi's seven brothers rushed to Davi, cheering "We've heard you were in Human World by yourself?!" "I wish I can be like you!"  "You are so brave!"

Davi finally smiled.  From that day on, Davi played with his brothers everyday, and lived happily ever after.

(Copyright @ myself)

title: I hope you like my short children's story I wrote about a monster who tries to make friends with people

question: Why don't humans like monsters?

answer: Humans are scared of monsters.

question: Why did Davi's grandfather allow him to go through the gate to the human world?

answer: He wants Davi to learn things about the human world by himself.

question: Describe what kind of monster Davi is.

answer: He is a young monster who is lonely because he thinks no one in the monster world likes him.

question: How did the blind lady know Davi was a monster?

answer: She touched Davi's face and realized that he was not a bird but a monster.

question: How did the coins help Davi in trouble?

answer: He gave them a cat, dog, and bird to tell him how to make friends with humans.

question: Write a ~5 sentence summary.

answer: Davi is a young monster who wants to make friends with humans. He asks for the advice of a cat, dog, and bird, but nothing works. The humans still don't like him. He goes back to the monster world crying, but his six brothers cheerfully greet him. He plays with them from then on.


text:
OWEN VINCENT MADDEN (December 18, 1891 – April 24, 1965), known as OWNEY MADDEN and nicknamed “THE KILLER”, was a leading underworld figure in Manhattan, most notable for his involvement in organized crime during Prohibition. He also ran the famous Cotton Club and was a leading boxing promoter in the 1930s.[1]

Early life

Owen Vincent Madden was born into a working-class family at 25 Somerset Road in Leeds, England, on December 18, 1891, the son of Francis Madden and Mary Madden (née O'Neil.)[2]

In search of work, the family moved first to Wigan, and then to Liverpool, and it was Francis's intention to take the family to the United States, but he died before this ambition could be fulfilled.

In 1901, Mary Madden sailed to New York on the RMS Oceanic to stay with her widowed sister, Elizabeth O'Neil, at 352 10th Avenue in Manhattan. Owen and his older brother, Martin, were left at a children's home, at 36 Springfield Terrace, in Leeds, until 1902, when Mary could finally afford passage for them. The family was reunited and found a home in amongst New York's long-established Irish community, which was to shape Madden's life permanently, giving him a reliable and loyal network among the thousands of other Irish emigrant families who had made New York their home.

Prohibition

[]

After serving seven years of a 10-to-20 year sentence for manslaughter[3], Madden was released on parole in 1923. The Gopher gang had broken up, and many members of his own faction were either in Sing Sing or working for bootlegging gangs.[4]

Upon his release he was given a job by an old friend, a former member of Madden's street gang who had moved up to better things. Larry Fay had a sharp mind for crime. He was not, however, the most physically imposing of gangsters and he needed Madden's muscle to help establish the taxi business he had set up from profits he had made running Canadian whisky across the border during the early days of Prohibition. Fay employed a gang of strong-arm men to help him gain control of the most profitable cab-stands along Broadway and Madden became their leader. Later Fay also became involved in New York's milk trade, attempting to turn its delivery into a racket. Owney Madden learned quickly and soon moved on to form his own organization.

During this time, Madden employed a young friend as a personal driver. The driver, George Raft, later became a film star noted for his authentic portrayals of gangland figures.[5][6]

Fay had used Prohibition as a means to raise money for other ventures, but Madden saw it as too good an opportunity to pass up, and soon became heavily involved in bootlegging, establishing a territory in the Hells Kitchen area. In 1924 the Madden gang began highjacking liquor shipments belonging to Big Bill Dwyer; but rather than go to war, Dwyer took Madden on as a partner when Dwyer decided he needed to beef up the enforcement side of his own operations.

The Cotton Club

Madden and his former gang rival turned partner, Big Frenchy De Mange (George Fox DeMange), began to open or acquire some of the flashiest speakeasies and nightclubs of the era, most notably the legendary Cotton Club.

Madden purchased the Club Deluxe from former Heavyweight Boxing Champion Jack Johnson and reopened it a year later. Nightclub patrons flooded into Harlem from downtown Manhattan to catch performers such as Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, Lena Horne, Bill “Bojangles” Robinson and the Nicholas Brothers. Madden and his partners, Big Bill and Big Frenchy, also muscled their way into a piece of the exclusive Stork Club, where the influential gossip columnist Walter Winchell held court and everyone who was anyone wanted to see and be seen. As a celebrity with ownership in more than twenty night clubs, Madden became well-known and glamorized for his Prohibition-era activities.[7] He also gained recognition for his revenge tactics and payoffs of City Hall.[8]

Exile in Hot Springs

In 1932, Madden was involved in the murder of Vincent “Mad Dog” Coll, who had been extorting money from several mobsters, including DeMange and Madden.[9] After being arrested for a parole violation that same year, Madden began facing greater harassment from police and encroachment on his territory by Italian Mafia families, until he finally left Manhattan, New York City in 1935.[10]

Leaving behind racketeering, Madden settled in Hot Springs, Arkansas, which had become known as a haven for various criminals, with a corrupt city government and police force.[11] He also became involved in local criminal activities, especially illegal gambling.[12] The Southern Club became a popular nightspot for mobsters; Charles Luciano was apprehended there in 1936. Madden became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1943 and eventually married the daughter of the city postmaster. He lived in Hot Springs until his death in 1965.[13]

Further reading

-   Asbury, Herbert. _The Gangs Of New York: An Informal History of the Underworld_. United Kingdom: Arrow Books 2002.
-   Clark, Neil G. _Dock Boss: Eddie McGrath and the West Side Waterfront_. New Jersey: Barricade Books, 2017.
-   English, T.J. _Paddy Whacked: The Untold Story of the Irish American Gangster_. New York: HarperCollins, 2005.
-   Kelly, Robert J. _Encyclopedia of Organized Crime in the United States_. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000.
-   Messick, Hank. _Lansky_. London: Robert Hale & Company, 1973.
-   Sifakis, Carl. _The Mafia Encyclopedia_. New York: Da Capo Press, 2005.
-   Downey, Patrick. “Gangster City: History of the New York Underworld 1900-1935”. New Jersey: Barricade Books, 2004.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5] Beaver, Jim “George Raft”, Films in Review, April, 1978.

[6] Yablonsky, Lewis George Raft, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1974. .

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

title: Owney Madden

question: What is Madden's cultural heritage?

answer: Though he was born in Leeds and the family moved around England before going to the U.S., the Madden and O'Neil names suggest Irish heritage.

question: What was Owney Madden known for?

answer: Madden was known for his imposing stature, for using that as a gang enforcer, and for his ownership of popular night clubs during Prohibition.

question: Why was Madden exiled?

answer: He went into a self-imposed exile in Hot Springs, Arkansas to avoid police harassment over his broken parole and the murder of a fellow mobster.

question: What is interesting about George Raft?

answer: George Raft, who was employed as Madden's driver as a young man, went on to portray famous gangsters as a film star.


text:
The WAR OF BROTHERS (; Harb al-Ikhwa) was a period of violent armed clashes between rivals Amal and Hezbollah, Lebanon's main Shiite militia movements, during the final stages of the Lebanese Civil War. The fighting broke out in April 1988 and proceeded intermittently in three phases over the following years until the signing of an agreement brokered by their respective foreign backers, Syria and Iran, in November 1990.

The Amal Movement was formed in 1974 as the armed wing of popular Shiite cleric Musa al-Sadr's Movement of the Dispossessed. Amal supported the intervening Syrian army against the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). Hezbollah, on the other hand, which began as an umbrella organization consisting of more conservative elements of Lebanon's Shiite community, was born in 1982 in reaction to Israel's invasion and occupation of South Lebanon. As the Amal-initiated “War of the Camps” against the PLO ended, Hezbollah and its rival Amal began clashing in South Lebanon and in Beirut's southern suburbs.

Background

[The distribution of the Shia population in Lebanon.]

Lebanon's Shiite community was established between the tenth and eleventh centuries as a result of Fatimid expansion in the region. Throughout the ages, the Shiites have been persecuted and driven southward by their Sunni rulers. When the Ottoman Empire collapsed in the early 20th century, they were the most socially and economically underprivileged demographic in Mount Lebanon, and were geographically distributed in the Jabal Amel region in the south and the Beqaa Valley in the northeast. The French mandate in Lebanon was carved out of Greater Syria in 1920, aiming to provide Mount Lebanon's Maronite Christians the basis for an independent state of their own. But due to the Christians' limited geographic distribution, the mandate was granted the Shiites' lands as well, which only contributed to the latter's second-class citizenship status. The situation gradually ameliorated over the years, however, as the Shiites were officially recognized as a sect and granted the right to celebrate Ashura.

As the economic situation began to improve in the 1950s, the Shiites, many of whom had relocated to urban areas, started seeking political representation. Musa al-Sadr, an Iranian-Lebanese cleric who arrived in Lebanon in 1959 to occupy the position of Tyre's leading imam, sought to further his community's interests by promoting and strengthening a certain 'Shiite identity' that is consistent with the broader Lebanese identity. Before Sadr's founding of the Movement of the Dispossessed (Harakat al-Mahrumin) in 1974 and the Supreme Islamic Shiite Council before it, the Shiites, who long felt disenfranchised in the political spectrum, tended to join ranks with a variety of available sociopolitical movements, among which were the Lebanese Communist Party, as well as Nasserist, Ba'athist and even Palestinian movements. The Movement of the Dispossessed became increasingly popular among the middle class Shiites and Lebanese returnees from West Africa, as well as some progressive elements within the influential _za'im_ system. Sadr's promotion of the idea of social solidarity among Shiites which, coupled with the narrative of “resistance” to Israel, were particularly appealing to his community and contributed to the growth of his movement.

Civil War and rise of Hezbollah

[Armed Hezbollah fighters patrol a neighborhood in southern Beirut, 1980s.]

Sadr initially advocated for non-violence during the early stages of the Lebanese Civil War, but when a deadly explosion took place at a training camp in the Beqaa Valley, he acknowledged, in July 1975, the existence of “Amal” (Arabic acronym for “Lebanese Resistance Brigades”) as the military wing of the Movement of the Dispossessed.[1] Amal grew rapidly in size, though with an increasingly weaker central command. This, in addition to the growing military presence of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in Shiite lands in the south and its use of methods like torture, increased tension between the two parties.[2]; At first, the Shiites, particularly the ones living in the south, were generally supportive of the PLO, to which Amal was originally allied.[3] But relations between the PLO and Amal were further strained by the latter's decision to support the Syrian intervention of 1976 against the Lebanese National Movement-PLO coalition.[4] Sadr also drew criticism from within the Shiite community when, later in 1976, he struck a deal with Maronite Phalangist forces besieging the al-Nabaa district of Beirut, allowing the relocation of 100,000 Shiites, among whom were Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, from the neighborhood to Jabal Amel and the Beqaa.[5] When Israel launched Operation _Litani_ in 1978 against the PLO in South Lebanon, disproportionate damage was inflicted upon the Shiite community, as it was caught in the crossfire. Sadr himself criticized the PLO for provoking the conflict, and supporters of Amal shifted to blaming the Palestinians for their community's plight. Violent clashes between Amal and the various Palestinian factions operating in the country became more frequent between 1978 and the Israeli invasion of 1982. The IDF operation, which eventually succeeded in routing the PLO out of Lebanon, was welcomed by a portion of the southern Shiite community, given that it aimed to destroy their Palestinian foes.[6]

Musa al-Sadr's unsolved disappearance in 1978 during a trip to Libya, following the _Litani_ operation, led to a struggle for influence among the Shiites, and left Amal's leadership divided along moderate and extremist lines.[7] The Iranian Revolution of 1979 had an equally significant impact on the Shiites of Lebanon, which later managed, through Hezbollah, to indoctrinate the community at the expense of Amal's internal schisms.[8] Hezbollah originated from a Syrian–Iranian deal that allowed Tehran to deploy a 1,500-member Revolutionary Guards (IRGC) delegation in the form of religious scholars and military officials. The Syrian government's concern by the possibility of Israeli influence among the Shiites of the south in the wake of the 1982 IDF invasion motivated its decision to allow the IRGC delegation to operate freely in the country, despite Syrian wariness of the prospect of Iran's clerical entrenchment in Lebanon.[9] Hussein al-Musawi, one of Amal's leading members, split from the movement in June 1982 to form Islamic Amal. Two months later, Iran's revolutionary leader, Ayatollah Khomeini, met with a number of prominent Lebanese Shiite figures in Tehran, including Fadlallah and Subhi al-Tufayli, who would later become Hezbollah's first secretary-general, among several others. During this conference, Khomeini encouraged his guests to form a resistance movement against Israel in South Lebanon.[10] Meanwhile, the IRGC delegation, stationed in the Beqaa Valley, helped form the nucleus of Hezbollah's leadership after a recruitment campaign that managed to gather several Lebanese clerics in its ranks. At the same time, the military wing of this movement grew rapidly as a result of extensive Iranian funding and training.[11] Among the constituent groups of Hezbollah were the Muslim Student Union and the Lebanese branch of the Islamic Dawa Party of Iraq, both of which Fadlallah helped create, as well as Hussein al-Musawi's Islamic Amal.

Lead-up to war

[Map of Hezbollah and Syrian control of Beirut in 1987.]

Hezbollah originally devoted itself to overthrowing the Lebanese government and resisting the presence of Israeli troops and the Multinational Force in Lebanon (MNF) in the country, as illustrated later by the “Open Letter”, a constitutional document which it released in February 1985. The organization is widely credited with a series of attacks sponsored by Iran in the early 1980s, not long after which the MNF ceased to exist. Such incidents include the 1983 suicide bombings in Beirut which struck separate buildings housing MNF troops, killing 241 American soldiers and 58 French paratroopers.[12] The movement also engaged in a series of kidnappings of foreigners and assassinations of politicians throughout the civil war. Given the criticism Syria has received for its links to Hezbollah, the latter's tactics were badly received by both the Syrian government and Amal, who had been working toward achieving favorable perception by world media and the United States.[13] Hafez al-Assad, Syria's president, warned that he would expel the IRGC from Lebanon following Hezbollah's kidnapping of David S. Dodge, the acting president of the American University of Beirut. Amal's leader, Nabih Berri, became the target of multiple Iranian-backed assassination attempts perpetrated by Hezbollah and other pro-Khomeini elements in Lebanon. Assad's threat to the IRGC was materialized when he expelled 300 of its recruits from Baalbek following a complaint by Berri to the Syrian government over the attempts on his life. The hijacking of TWA Flight 847 from Athens to Rome in 1985 by Hezbollah, which was forced to land in the Amal-controlled Beirut International Airport, initially embarrassed Berri and Syria,[14] and further added to the tension between the Syrian and Iranian camps. Hezbollah opposed the Syrian-brokered Tripartite Accord later that year, and supported the PLO during the War of the Camps, which was launched by Amal, with Syrian support, in order to curb the resurgence of Yasser Arafat's PLO in Lebanon. Hezbollah considered this sort of inter-Muslim fighting a preoccupation from the resistance to Israel, and Iran was keen to lift Amal's siege on the Palestinian camps, publicly denouncing its actions as beneficial to the Israelis, against whom it sought to create a Shiite-Palestinian coalition.

On its part, Amal was not only concerned because Palestinian fighters in Lebanon were increasing in number, but also because their camps were geographically located between its strongholds in West Beirut and Hezbollah-controlled Shiite districts in the city, where the latter was gaining influence at Amal's expense. Violent skirmishes between Amal and Hezbollah were rare, but limited clashes did, however, break out twice in 1986 during the War of the Camps. In February, Amal, backed by the Shiite Sixth Brigade of the Lebanese Army, fought Hezbollah in Beirut. They clashed once again in September, and this time the violence reportedly ended with a ceasefire, following an Iranian diplomatic intervention.[15] Another confrontation took place in 1987, when over 2,500 Hezbollah supporters attempted a march on Tyre in the south. They retreated when Amal mobilized its men to block the move. The standoff was accompanied by a large demonstration in the city in which thousands of Shiites rallied in support of Amal. At the same time, the Syrian government, infuriated by two kidnapping incidents in late 1986 and early 1987 which it attributed to Hezbollah, deployed a special force to West Beirut, where the hostages were believed to be held. On February 24, 1987, an incident occurred at the Fathallah barracks in which 23 Hezbollah militiamen were executed by the Syrians. Hezbollah fighters were placed on high alert following the massacre, while the movement's top leadership condemned it and demanded an apology.

Events

On February 17, 1988, while on his way back from a meeting with a local Amal official, American colonel William R. Higgins, who was heading a United Nations observers' mission, was captured by Hezbollah men on a coastal road in South Lebanon. Earlier this month, they also kidnapped, but eventually released, two UNRWA workers in an area controlled by Amal near Sidon. Nabih Berri considered Hezbollah's actions a territorial breach, and ordered an extensive search and rescue operation in Iqlim al-Tuffah following the Higgins incident. Hezbollah, while backing his captors' demands, denied any responsibility for the kidnapping. When Amal's operation spread to villages in the region which Hezbollah controlled, carrying out a series of arrests and home to home inspections, the latter responded by killing a Lebanese Army officer associated with Amal, and by attacking an Amal checkpoint on the outskirts of the village of Harouf in the Jabal Amel region.

Fighting in Nabatieh and Ghazieh

During the early stages of an Amal offensive on April 5, 1988, Hezbollah managed to occupy Nabatieh and the surrounding villages. It seized Amal positions and offices in the town, as well as in Ghazieh. In a counterattack, however, Amal retook Nabatieh. It proceeded to attack Hezbollah militants in Tyre and its surroundings, and took the conflict further south to Siddikine. The fighting had gone uninterrupted, despite mediation attempts by a local imam in Nabatieh. Amal had retaken positions it had lost earlier in the fighting, in addition to the three villages of Jebchit, Doueir and Zawtar, previously considered Hezbollah strongholds. The armed clashes were accompanied by psychological warfare, through which Amal attempted to pressure its rival, with Berri associating his movement's military successes to broad public support. Amal declared victory over “extremism and political kidnapping” by mid-April, announcing an end to Hezbollah's military presence in the south, and expelled a number of its rival's clerics to the Beqaa.

A high-level Iranian delegation headed by Ahmad Jannati, which arrived in Lebanon earlier that month following the outbreak of violence, announced during a press conference on April 22 the creation of a five-member commission to solve the crisis that consisted of himself and representatives from Amal and Hezbollah. The commission, however, failed to convince the two sides to reach an agreement in regards to the presence of the United Nations Interim Force (UNIFIL) in the country and disengagement from Israel, both of which Hezbollah opposed. Days after Jannati's conference, fighting re-erupted, but this time in the Beqaa Valley on April 26, and a Hezbollah fortification in the southern village of Maydoum was raided by Israeli commandos on May 2. This pushed Hezbollah to seek further assistance from the IRGC.

Battle for southern Beirut

In early May, two Amal members were killed at a Hezbollah-manned roadblock in southwest Beirut. The ensuing clashes saw defections from Amal, and led to Hezbollah's occupation of Amal positions in the neighborhoods of Chyah and Ghobeiry. Amal commenced a large offensive on May 6 against its rival in the southern Beirut suburbs of Dahieh, overrunning Hezbollah positions in the neighborhood within the first 36 hours of fighting. The following day, however, a large combined Hezbollah-IRGC force, the latter assembling from the Beqaa Valley, penetrated the suburbs without being detected by Syrian troops. They rapidly advanced on Amal positions in a carefully planned offensive. An intervention by the Iranian Embassy established a 16-hour ceasefire that night, before which Hezbollah had occupied key positions in the area. Fighting was renewed the following afternoon, and persisted on a daily basis for the next few days, with intermittent ceasefire attempts. Syrian colonel Ghazi Kanaan, backed by Berri, proposed the deployment of Syrian troops in south Beirut to enforce a ceasefire. On May 11, Amal fighters were cornered in the western edge of the suburbs, having lost their headquarters in Bourj el-Barajneh to Hezbollah, and were left in control of only Chyah and parts of Ghobeiry. Hezbollah, on the other hand, had occupied about 80% of the suburbs, including the districts of Hayy Ma'adi, Haret Hreik, Bir al-Abed and Hayy Muawwad. By this day, up to 150 people had been killed and hundreds more were wounded. Representatives from Syria, Iran, Amal and Hezbollah convened at the Iranian Embassy in Beirut and formed the Quadripartite Committee that day, aiming to put an end to the conflict. They formulated a ceasefire, and a joint security force involving Syrian troops, the IRGC and fighters from both Amal and Hezbollah started patrolling the suburbs on May 12 as part of the agreement's terms.[16]

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  “We greatly value our alliance with Iran, but our regional allies must respect our position … our role [in Lebanon] is above all other considerations. In their operations, our allies should pay attention to our interests and to those of our [Lebanese] friends. The movements of some [Lebanese] have become a threat to the Syrian role. We shall not allow the creation of complications in the Lebanese arena.”
  — Syrian Vice President, Abdul Halim Khaddam, in May 1988.
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The ceasefire, however, collapsed 48 hours later. Opposition by Syria and Amal to the renewal of Hezbollah's pre-April presence in South Lebanon played a role in its failure to materialize. On May 13, Hezbollah began an offensive that pushed Amal fighters southward to the outer perimeter of the suburbs, occupying the district of Awzai. As they reached the main road connecting the capital to Beirut International Airport, they clashed with a Syrian military contingent that was manning a checkpoint there, resulting in the deaths of five Hezbollah fighters and a Syrian soldier. Iranian deputy foreign minister Hossein Sheikholeslam met that day with Syrian brigadier Ali Hammoud, who had threatened to “eradicate any militia presence” in the areas under Syrian control, in response to the incident. They both agreed upon another ceasefire, which broke down two days later on May 15. A seventh ceasefire came into effect the following night, but it foundered like the ones before it, and clashes were renewed on May 17. Hezbollah now controlled up to 90% of the suburbs, and about 250 people had been killed since the fighting began. The Syrian government was already considering taking matters into its own hands and had deployed between 5,000 and 7,000 troops to West Beirut who, by May 18, were told by their superiors that it was only a question of time before they marched on Dahieh. Hezbollah warned that Western hostages held in the suburbs would be killed should Syrian troops enter the area, while Berri was lobbying for Syria's Assad to intervene. Iran, fearing an armed confrontation between Syria and Hezbollah, intensified its diplomatic efforts to delay the planned Syrian intervention. Another ceasefire agreement was reached by the Quadripartite Committee on May 21, and the fighting diminished. There was disagreement by Syrian and Amal representatives during the following negotiations in regards to an Iranian proposal, backed by Hezbollah, to establish a joint Syrian-Iranian peacekeeping force rather than a primarily Syrian one. There was also uncertainty over the issue of Hezbollah's re-establishment in South Lebanon. Fighting resumed on May 24, and Amal had lost its remaining possessions in Ghobeiry, retaining solely the district of Chyah in south Beirut. The following day, however, Assad and leading Hezbollah representatives reached an agreement in the Syrian port city of Latakia which allowed for a Syrian military deployment in the suburbs. Fighters from both sides were to withdraw from the streets and retreat to specific positions throughout the suburbs, and both factions were allowed to keep their offices. The death toll had so far reached 300. Syrian troops entered the neighborhood on May 27 at 11 a.m., before which fighters had disappeared from the streets. The first phase of the deployment involved 800 Syrian soldiers and 100 Lebanese gendarmes, while the second one involved 3,500 Syrian troops. On June 1, both Hezbollah and Amal agreed to exchange 200 and 58 detainees respectively. The fighting caused extensive damage to property in the suburbs, in addition to the displacement of up to 400,000 inhabitants.

Intermittent violence and propaganda

The exchange of propagandist accusations never ceased. On May 29, Amal publicized claims, citing its interrogation of Hezbollah captives, that its rival collaborated with Christian war factions, namely the Lebanese Forces (LF), during the clashes. Hezbollah quickly denied the accusation but confirmed that some of its members were still in captivity. It accused Amal of employing torture and of trying to undermine the Islamic resistance. There were spillover confrontations between the two in the Beqaa Valley both during the Beirut fighting and two months later in July. The Beqaa clashes drew two local families in the region on a collision course, as each was backing one of the warring factions. Further disagreements over a number of issues during the mediation attempts were accompanied by occasional skirmishes, kidnappings and executions, which began to intensify in September that year. In October, Hezbollah killed Dawud Dawud, along with two other senior Amal commanders, in Jabal Amel. Amal responded by expelling Hezbollah affiliates and their families from its territory. It identified three individuals whom it accused of being involved in the assassinations, and demanded they be handed over to Syrian authorities. The situation escalated in mid-October, despite attempts by Hezbollah to blame a third party. Clashes erupted in the Chyah district and in the Beqaa. The Beirut conflict intensified the following month, leaving 30 fatalities, following a car bombing which almost killed four leading Hezbollah officials on November 21, including Subhi al-Tufayli. The confrontations, for the first time since 1987, spread to Syrian-controlled parts of West Beirut and to the Ras Beirut district. Syrian troops ended the fighting by disarming units from both sides.

Amal, later fearing a southward expansion by Hezbollah in the direction of Nabatieh, made a number of political moves, aiming to secure its other fronts in order to concentrate efforts on Hezbollah. Such moves included the signing of a peace agreement on December 22 with Arafat's Fatah movement, the PLO's leading faction, which was based in the Sidon region. Berri also worked to improve Amal's relations with clans in the Beqaa for the same purpose.[17]

Iqlim al-Tuffah war

Clashes re-erupted on December 31 at 3:30 p.m., until the intervention of a joint security committee two hours later, in the southern Chyah district of Beirut, as well as in the areas of Rawdat al-Shahidain, Abdel Karim al-Khalil and parts of Ghobeiry. Hundreds of families have fled the suburbs to West Beirut. The fighting later spread to Iqlim al-Tuffah in South Lebanon on January 2, 1989. It also spread to Beirut's downtown and the Khandaq al-Ghamiq district, two Syrian-controlled parts of West Beirut, on January 7. Clashes lasted for three hours there before Syrian troops intervened. The conflict was, by then, centered in Beirut. There were still occasional clashes in the Iqlim, however. On January 6, Amal accused its rival of shelling a house in Jbaa, while Hezbollah accused Amal of pounding its positions in Luwayza and Jabal Safi. Hezbollah blamed the violence on Amal and said that it had repelled a two-way assault by the latter on Nabi Safi.

On January 8, Hezbollah concentrated its presence in Jabal Safi, a hilly region located between the territories controlled by Amal and the Israeli-backed South Lebanon Army (SLA), forming a pocket there. It then launched a surprise offensive westward on Amal positions in Jbaa and its surroundings in the Iqlim, capturing the town, along with Kfar Fila, Kfar Melki and Kfar Heta. Amal counterattacked that night in Kfar Fila, and clashes ended the following morning on January 9, when it managed to retake the town following violent confrontations there between 7 and 10 a.m., during which hand grenades and melee weapons were used. The movement started conducting house-to-house raids in search of remaining Hezbollah elements in Kfar Fila after recapturing it. Its forces had done the same earlier in the villages of Kfar Heta and Kfar Melki, following Hezbollah's retreat from them and from the village of Mjaydal. A Lebanese security delegation visiting those villages noted in its report that it had found dozens of bodies along the streets there, and that the town of Kfar Fila was being shelled intermittently by Hezbollah artillery installations in Luwayza, Ain Bouswar and Jabal Safi. A group of women rallied in protest against the violence in Kfar Heta, and a general strike took place throughout South Lebanon, which was ordered by Amal's regional command in solidarity with the victims. Following the earlier battle in Kfar Fila, Amal forces later marched on the town of Jbaa from Ain Qana, and on Ain Bouswar. The movement had mobilized 300 militiamen in Tyre to reinforce its counteroffensive in the Iqlim. It said it had surrounded Hezbollah elements in a section of Jbaa that it claimed to have reoccupied there, following clashes that began at 9:30 a.m. on the outskirts of the town from the side overlooking Ain Qana. Amal then gathered more than 1,000 fighters to reinforce its positions, while Hezbollah brought 500 from the Beqaa. Armed militiamen were present on the entrances of villages and towns throughout the Nabatieh region, and masked men were detaining Hezbollah affiliates at roadblocks in the conflict zone and in Tyre. 20,000 refugees had moved from Iqlim al-Tuffah to either Sidon or further south, and at least 51 people were killed during these two days. Among those killed were a senior Amal official, along with ten people in his entourage, including relatives and bodyguards.

The fighting escalated in Jbaa on January 10 at around 11:30 a.m., as well as on the outskirts of Ain Bouswar. Amal deployed a relief force of about 500 fighters in the region encompassing Luwayza, Nabi Safi and Ain Bouswar, cutting off Hezbollah supply routes to the area. The battles saw the use of heavy artillery weapons. Hezbollah announced that it had repelled an Amal offensive on Ain Bouswar, and that the town was being shelled, along with Jbaa, from Amal positions in the villages of Sarba and Al-Zahrani. Ten Amal members who were killed during earlier clashes were buried in Kfar Heta that day, and the funeral procession was accompanied by a pro-Amal demonstration. On January 11, Amal launched a series of raids throughout the Tyre region, where the movement reportedly found a weapons depot belonging to Hezbollah in the village of Maaroub, and in the Bint Jbeil region, amid continuing skirmishes in the Iqlim. The following day, Amal launched an unsuccessful offensive on Jbaa, which failed to break through Hezbollah's defenses. Backed by rockets and artillery strikes from launchers stationed in Zefta, Arabsalim, Marwania and Houmine al-Fawqa, about 600 Amal fighters participated in the offensive, and made no significant territorial gains. Hezbollah, which was still controlling the entrance to Jbaa overlooking Kfar Fila, said it had repelled the offensive.

The conflict had been centered around Jbaa during the next two days, with some clashes occurring in Ain Bouswar and sniper shots targeting Kfar Fila from Jbaa.[18] Shiite _mufti_ Abdul Amir Qabalan proposed a plan for disengagement on January 13. His terms, which included a return to the _status quo_ that existed prior the Iqlim war, were welcomed by Berri and by Mohammad Mehdi Shamseddine, president of the Supreme Islamic Shiite Council (SISC). Hezbollah's Tufayli and Musawi said they had welcomed the proposal in theory but sought guarantees that they would be allowed to pursue resistance operations against Israel. Another general strike, organized by Amal, took place that day and involved different parts of Lebanon, including the south, the Dahieh suburb of Beirut and the Beqaa, condemning the events of “Black Saturday” and other “massacres” which it accused Hezbollah of having committed earlier that month.[19] By January 16, the conflict had been limited to relatively minor exchanges over the front lines that were drawn during the previous Iqlim fighting. Both Amal and Hezbollah disengaged for a period of time, as part of an unofficial ceasefire, to allow members of the Red Cross in and out of the war zone. They organized funeral processions for their dead in Tyre and Dahieh respectively, which were accompanied by solidarity demonstrations. Both sides engaged in a war of accusations over the following days, accompanied by renewed clashes on January 17 shortly after the Red Cross left the area. Amal blamed the escalation on Hezbollah, and said that it had repelled an assault by the latter when it took advantage of Israeli artillery strikes on Amal's positions in Jarjouh, an event which Hezbollah flatly denied. On January 19, Amal struck Hezbollah positions in Jabal Safi from Sarba, and clashes took place on the Kfar Fila-Jbaa and Jarjouh-Ain Bouswar front lines, as well as in Beirut's Dahieh.

Clashes were renewed on the night of January 22 while talks were underway in Damascus to end the conflict, following two days of relative calm in Dahieh and in the Iqlim.[20] The situation escalated the following evening until the morning of January 24. Hezbollah said it had repelled an Amal offensive, backed by rocket and artillery bombardment, on Jbaa. As part of the negotiations, Hezbollah said it would hand over the people responsible for the previous year's assassination of Amal's three commanders to Syrian authorities, on condition that it be allowed a strip of land in Amal territory from which it could launch armed assaults on Israeli and SLA targets, and that it be given a leading position in Amal's South Lebanon operations room. Those were some of the main points of contention during the meetings. A preliminary three-point agreement was reached in Damascus on January 25, which was announced by Syria and Iran, giving way to an official ceasefire arrangement. Until this moment, over 140 people had been killed in the January fighting. The ceasefire collapsed hours later, however, when both sides re-engaged in fighting over Jbaa that same day. The exchange of rocket and cannon fire intensified after 1:30 p.m., when Amal fired upon Jbaa and Ain Bouswar using 122mm and 130mm long-distance artillery weapons stationed in Sarba, Zefta and Marwania. Hezbollah retaliated by shelling Amal locations in Kfar Fila and Ain Qana. Fighting escalated in southern Beirut the following day around Amal's headquarters in Tahouitet al-Ghadir and in other parts of the suburbs. Amal blamed the Beirut escalation on Hezbollah. Both movements resumed the exchange of artillery fire in the Iqlim at 9:30 p.m., and reinforced their front lines there.

First Damascus Agreement

On January 30, representatives from Amal and Hezbollah signed the Damascus Agreement, a day after Syrian and Iranian officials gathered in Damascus and composed a draft of the document, before summoning the leaders of the warring factions to the Syrian capital. The agreement was supervised by Syria's foreign minister, Farouk al-Sharaa, and his Iranian counterpart, Ali Akbar Velayati. Among its terms, other than the ceasefire, were the cessation of media hostilities between the two, the return to the pre-April 1988 _status quo_ in South Lebanon before the expulsion of Hezbollah, the withdrawal of all militiamen from Jbaa and Ain Bouswar, the establishment of a common operations room to coordinate the “resistance” against Israel, and the allowance of the UNIFIL to operate freely in the country without being harassed. Two other main points were the recognition of Amal's responsibility for the security of South Lebanon, while allowing Hezbollah to resume political and social activities there, and the handing over of Dahieh, which was dominated by Hezbollah, to the Syrian-sponsored security plan for Beirut.

West Beirut clashes

At 10 p.m. on the night of July 1, Amal and Hezbollah clashed once again in West Beirut, in the Khandaq al-Ghamiq and Zuqaq al-Blat districts. The fighting, the origins of which remained unclear, proceeded intermittently and gradually spread to other districts of Beirut, such as Msaytbeh. It quickly escalated the following morning at around 7:45 a.m., after six hours of relative calm. Both sides engaged in burning and looting of property along Lija Street and the Salim Salam Bridge. Syrian troops intervened in neighborhoods where the clashes hadn't spread yet, to prevent spill over fighting there. A joint security team, comprising Amal, Hezbollah and Syrian forces, started patrolling the conflict zone at 8:30 p.m. to enforce the Damascus ceasefire. Representatives from both sides later met with Syria's Ali Hammoud at his office in the Beau Rivage Hotel in Beirut, and announced their commitment to the ceasefire.

On July 7, disagreement over the distribution of _Amal_ and _Al Ahed_ newspapers at a joint Amal-Hezbollah checkpoint in the Ouzai district of West Beirut resulted in street clashes which had spread by 2:30 p.m. to the Jnah and Bir Hassan districts. The fighting diminished an hour later following a Syrian Army deployment to the area, but flared once again at around 9 p.m. and later on spread to the areas surrounding the Iranian Embassy, near the road to the airport.[21] Clashes resumed on July 8 at 9:25 p.m., and the following escalation resulted in serious damage to property, especially in Haret Hreik and the Iranian Embassy's surroundings. The situation remained tense and both sides were on high alert, despite joint diplomatic efforts in the Syrian capital to enforce the Damascus Agreement. Sniper shots in Ghobeiry and Haret Hreik during the early dawn hours of July 9 led to a re-escalation of fighting, with both sides clashing at the entrances of Dahieh with machine guns and artillery, almost isolating the suburbs from the rest of West Beirut. The fighting, which led to 9 deaths, was happening while Berri was on an official visit to Tehran. Amal said that it had conducted an offensive at around 3:30 p.m. to reclaim its Ouzai possessions that were lost two days earlier, accusing its rival of having started the fighting when Hezbollah elements infiltrated its territory in the area. The situation gradually calmed following the deployment of joint security committees in Ghobeiry and Hayy Farhat, which called for a ceasefire that evening. A Syrian Army contingent consisting of 300 soldiers deployed along the path from Ouzai to the main coastal road at around 8:45 p.m., and other forces stationed themselves in different conflict zones to separate the warring sides.

Beqaa battles spark new war in the south

Violent clashes started in the Western Beqaa on the night of December 3 at around 12 a.m., until a clear break from fighting took place from 7 to 9 a.m. the following morning, after which the violence re-escalated. Under the cover of repeated artillery shelling, both Amal and Hezbollah fighters raided each other's command centers in the towns of Sohmor and Machghara. By 2:30 p.m., Sohmor fell to Hezbollah following street battles there, where Amal's leading security official in the Western Beqaa was injured by an RPG strike on the movement's command center in the town. The Lebanese Army had set up checkpoints earlier at the entrances of Sohmor and Yohmor. The latter town was taken over by Hezbollah with relatively no violence, when its militants entered the homes of Amal members and disarmed them. Then the fighting in Machghara intensified at around 4 p.m., where Amal managed to retain only a small pocket near the town's northern entrance. Most of the Western Beqaa villages had come under Hezbollah's control by the end of the day. Amal was decisively defeated and lost its foothold in the region, and 15 people in total were killed, among them two Amal commanders in Sohmor.[22] A joint Security Committee was formed, consisting of representatives from the warring factions, as well as Iranian Embassy and Syrian Army officials. The committee intervened to enforce a ceasefire agreement at 11:00 a.m. on December 5, and was handed over 29 Amal members held captive by Hezbollah. The situation gradually returned to normality, while militants and artillery installations were withdrawn from the conflict zone as part of the ceasefire's terms. The committee and the Red Cross coordinated the evacuation of the injured.

On December 7, fighting broke out once again around 11:30 a.m., this time in West Beirut. Amal and Hezbollah militants clashed repeatedly in the central areas of Khandaq al-Ghamiq, Basta al-Tahta, Basta al-Fawqa, Wadi Abu Jamil and in the old Souks region. Syrian troops began deploying two hours later amid efforts to establish a ceasefire. The attempts failed after a short period of relative calm, and the fighting resumed at the edges of the Msaytbeh district, around Sanayeh Park, Haoud al-Wilaya Park and El Murr Tower. A ceasefire came through at 5 p.m., and was enforced by the Syrian Army which started deploying in coordination with the joint Security Committee. Both sides started mobilizing afterwards throughout West Beirut and the southern suburbs of Dahieh. Limited clashes took place an hour later around the Souks and in the Lija neighborhood, and gradually diminished towards nightfall. From that point, overnight, only intermittent gunshots were heard in the area. Another ceasefire was officially announced at 8 a.m. the following morning while Syrian troops were still deploying, but it was followed by occasional street battles that took place in the Bourj Abi Haydar and Wadi Abu Jamil regions, as well as in the Iranian Cultural Moustasharia's surroundings further south. By 2 p.m., the situation had been largely contained by the Syrian Army, which had set up over twenty checkpoints throughout the conflict zone and sent armed patrols to West Beirut and the southern Dahieh suburbs, with orders to shoot any armed individual on sight. Nine deaths were confirmed since the beginning of the violence in Beirut, and the origins of this escalation remained obscure.

On December 20, Amal and Hezbollah started mobilizing in Iqlim al-Tuffah, amid increasing tension in the region. 2,000 Amal militiamen and 1,500 Palestinian fighters deployed to the Iqlim. A senior Hezbollah official said that it was only a matter of time before war broke out between the two rivals, and confirmed that PFLP-GC fighters also mobilized in Ain Bouswar and Jbaa, a Hezbollah-controlled town where Iranian physicians had arrived a month earlier and were assigned to field hospitals there. Berri received that day a delegation representing residents of the Iqlim, and reassured them that Amal would not allow the situation to escalate militarily. The mobilizations were met by general strikes in Tyre and Nabatieh the following day, where shops, schools and state institutions were closed. Street demonstrators in Nabatieh called for “ending the _fitna_” between the two movements, and a similar march was called for by Amal in Tyre. In Damascus, on December 22, Shamseddine met with Syrian and Iranian officials to discuss the situation in the Iqlim. At this point, about 1,500 Hezbollah fighters were reportedly stationed in the region.

War eventually broke out on December 23 at around 4 a.m., despite mediation talks underway in the Syrian capital, which were later attended by Nabih Berri. The fighting began when Hezbollah, aiming to connect its encircled pocket in Jabal Safi to the Mediterranean coast westward and to the Nabatieh region southward, launched an offensive similar to its earlier January campaign, though this time the initial push came from Jbaa. According to Amal's account of the events, the village of Ain Qana was attacked first, shortly after mortar fire targeted the movement's positions throughout the Iqlim, followed by Kfar Fila. A subsequent counteroffensive by Amal failed to regain much ground. To the north, an Amal installation near Bouslaiya was ambushed from two directions, one being Jbaa and the other Mjaydal. The latter saw repeated clashes, after which Hezbollah militants reportedly withdrew from the village. Hundreds of families had already left the Iqlim when the mobilizations began days earlier, while others set up checkpoints near the Amal-held villages of Ain Qana, Arabsalim and Mjaydal to limit the infiltration of Hezbollah affiliates to the region.[23] Hezbollah fighters, who were less numerous but better equipped than Amal's, had managed to occupy Ain Qana, Kfar Fila and Bouslaiya during their initial offensive, with conflicting reports over Kfar Melki.[24] The following day, Amal commenced another counteroffensive, backed by artillery strikes on Jbaa, but failed to make any significant advances on Kfar Fila. Its fighters did, however, manage to penetrate Ain Qana. To the north, Amal fortified its positions in Mjaydal, fearing further incursions by Hezbollah. The fighting devolved into minor skirmishing by nightfall, and was widely condemned by Lebanese Shiite figures like Qabalan and other politicians, such as Osama Saad of the Popular Nasserist Organization, which hosted a “national Islamic summit” in its Sidon headquarters denouncing the violence. Meanwhile, in Damascus, the Amal delegation headed by Berri insisted on the evacuation of villages recently occupied by Hezbollah as a precondition to a proposed ceasefire.[25] According to _Ad-Diyar_, Hezbollah carried out an assault on Jernaya on the night of December 25, capturing the hill. Clashes took place the next day on the Jarjouh-Ain Bouswar front line. Hezbollah, which reportedly deployed 500 more fighters to the Iqlim since the war began, appeared to be pushing towards Jarjouh and Arabsalim, which were still controlled by Amal. On the same day, Berri made a visit to the Iqlim in an attempt to boost his men's morale.[26] He spent that night near the front lines, where he met with senior Amal commanders and urged them to abide by a ceasefire that was proposed in Damascus. Clashes around Kfar Fila and Ain Qana had toned down considerably by then, but there was still fighting in the Jarjouh front on December 27. Iranian deputy foreign minister, Ali Mohammad Besharati, formally announced the ceasefire that evening during a press conference in Beirut.

On June 14, _Al-Hayat_ reported that 2,500 people had been killed so far throughout the entire Amal-Hezbollah war, in addition to five thousand injuries.

“Hundred-day siege”

On July 16, Hezbollah fighters overran the Amal-held village of Jarjouh, as well as Kfar Melki, the nearest village in Iqlim al-Tuffah to the port city of Sidon. After several failed attempts by Amal to recover Jarjouh the following week, the movement went instead on the offensive in Kfar Melki on July 28. Backed by Palestinian guerilla fighters from the Hamas movement, Amal recaptured Kfar Melki. 16 people were killed during the offensive, among them a Palestinian, raising the death toll since mid-July to 166.

Notes

[1] ;

[2]

[3]

[4] ;

[5] ;

[6] ;

[7] ;

[8] ;

[9] ;

[10] ;

[11]

[12] ;

[13] ;

[14] ;

[15] ;

[16] ;

[17] ;

[18] ;

[19] ;

[20] ;

[21] ;

[22] ;

[23] ; ;

[24] ;

[25] ;

[26] ;

title: War of Brothers

question: What groups clashed in the War of Brothers?

answer: Amal and Hezbollah.

question: What religious sect did the two groups belong to?

answer: Shiites.

question: What country were the two groups members of?

answer: Lebanon.

question: How long did the fighting last?

answer: From 1988 - 1990.

question: Write a ~1 sentence summary.

answer: This article is about a conflict between two Shiite militia groups in Lebanon, Amal and Hezbollah.


text:
_CLATHRUS COLUMNATUS_, commonly known as the COLUMN STINKHORN, is a saprobic species of basidiomycete fungus in the family Phallaceae. It has a widespread distribution, and has been found in Africa, Australasia, and the Americas. It may have been introduced to North America with exotic plants. Similar to other stinkhorn fungi, the fruiting body, known as the _receptaculum_, starts out as a subterranean “egg” form. As the fungus develops, the receptaculum expands and erupts out of the protective volva, ultimately developing into mature structures characterized by two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns, joined together at the apex. The fully grown receptaculum reaches heights of tall. The inside surfaces of the columns are covered with a fetid olive-brown spore-containing slime, which attracts flies and other insects that help disseminate the spores. Although once considered undesirable, the fungus is listed as edible. It is found commonly in mulch.

Taxonomy and naming

The species was first named by the French botanist Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc in 1811.[1] Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck transferred it into _Laternea_ in 1858, a genus intended to accommodate those _Clathrus_-like species with arms arranged in columns rather than a network;[2] in its current meaning, _Laternea_ includes species that have gleba suspended below the arch of the receptaculum by trabeculae (columns that extend from the peridium to the central core of the receptaculum).[3] Other genera to which the species has been transferred include _Linderia_ by Gordon Herriot Cunningham in 1932,[4] _Colonnaria_ by Eduard Fischer in 1933, and _Linderiella_ by Cunningham in 1942. _Colonnaria_, _Linderia_ and _Linderiella_ are now considered obsolete genera, as they have been subsumed into _Clathrus_.[5][6][7]

The specific epithet _columnatus_ is Latin, meaning “supported by pillars”.[8] The mushroom is commonly known as the “column stinkhorn”.[9] Curtis Gates Lloyd wrote in 1906 "in Florida, it is known to the natives as “Dead Men's Fingers.”[10] however in recent times Dead Men's Fingers usually refers to Xylaria polymorpha.

Description

[Mature specimens showing the dark-colored gleba] The fruit body, or receptaculum, of _Clathrus columnatus_ consists of two to five (usually four) spongy vertical columns, which are separate where they arise from the volva, but joined together at the top in an arch. The columns are joined together in pairs; the opposite pairs are joined by a short and broad arch similar in structure to the columns. The columns, which are narrower at the base than above, are reddish-orange above and yellowish-pink below. Young specimens have the fruit body compressed into the small interior space of an “egg”,[11] which consists of a peridium that is surrounded by a gelatinous layer that encloses the compressed fruiting body. The egg, usually gray or grayish-brown,[12] typically reaches diameters of before the columns grow. The volva remains at the base of the fruit body as a thick, loose, whitish sack. The mycelial cords found at the base of the volva are made of two types of tissues: a central bundle of fine hyphae that extend in a longitudinal direction, and an outer cortical layer of coarser hyphae that form a loose but highly interwoven structure. Full-grown columns can extend to above the ground, a location that optimizes spore dispersal. The fetid-smelling gleba, the spore-bearing mass, is smeared on the upper inner surface of the columns.[13]

The spores are elliptical, smooth, and have dimensions of 3.5–5 by 2–2.5 µm.[14] They have thin walls, and are covered by a transparent envelope.[15]

Edibility

The words of William Gilson Farlow, published in 1890, serve as a warning to those who might be inclined to consume _Clathrus columnatus_: “The odor of fully grown specimens of the order Phalloidea is so repulsive that the question as to their poisonous character when eaten by men has not often been the subject of experiment.” Farlow described two cases of poisoning, one involving a young girl “who ate a small piece of the fungus, and was seized with violent convulsions followed by loss of speech and a deep sleep lasting 52 hours”; the other case involved hogs that ate the fungus found in patches in oak woods, and died 12–15 hours later.[16] Despite this early report of poisoning, Orson K. Miller, Jr. notes that the taste of the egg is mild, and lists the species as edible.[17]

Similar species

_Pseudocolus fusiformis_, _Clathrus bicolumnatus_, and _C. ruber_ have similarities to _Clathrus columnatus_. The lattice stinkhorn, _C. ruber_, has a larger, more globular, lattice-like receptacle. The “stinky squid”, _P. fusiformis_, has arms that are attached at the bases, and free at the top. It grows on rotting logs and chip-mulched soil, in contrast to _C. columnatus_, which grows on sandy soil.[18] _C. bicolumnatus_ has a smaller stature (up to 9 cm tall), and only has two columns.[19]

Development

The American botanist Edward Angus Burt published a detailed description of the development of _C. columnatus_ in 1896. He found that the egg consists of cortical and medullary systems continued upward from the mycelial strand in the earliest stage. The cortical layer gives rise to the outer layer of the volva, the cortical plates and the pseudoparenchyma (thin-walled, usually angular, randomly arranged cells that are tightly packed) of the receptaculum. The medullary portion gives rise to the gelatinous masses of the gelatinous layer of the volva, to the gleba, and to the gelatinous tissue of the chambers of the receptaculum. The elongation of the receptacle begins at the base and after its elongation, the gleba hangs suspended from the arch of the receptaculum by medullary tissue constituting the chamber masses of the receptacle.[20]

Ecology, habitat and distribution

Like all _Phallaceae_ species, _C. columnatus_ is saprobic, and uses extracellular digestion to acquire nutrients from dead and decaying organic matter, like wood. As a consequence of its predilection for dead wood, the fungus is often associated with disturbed habitats. It can often be found growing in and around gardens and residences where areas of cultivation or landscaping have resulted in accumulations of mulch, wood chips or other cellulose-rich materials. The mycelial cords can be traced to buried roots, stumps, and other woody material.[21] The species grows in sandy soil,[22] near woody debris, in lawns, gardens, and cultivated soil.[23] Fruit bodies appear singly, or scattered, and can arise in the summer, autumn, and early winter, especially after wet weather.[24]

Like other member of the family Phallaceae, the mature fungus attracts insects with its smell to help disperse its spores. _Psilopyga fasciata_, a stinkhorn beetle of the sap beetle family, has been recorded feeding on the gleba of Mexican specimens.[25]

In 1980 Donald Malcolm Dring summarized the known geographical distribution of _C. columnatus_; the fungus has been collected in Australia, New Zealand, Oceania, New Guinea, Africa, and North and South America;[26] According to Australian mycologist Tom May, the Australian distribution is “presumably erroneous”, as it is based on only a single collection in 1948.[27] In Central America, it has been collected from Costa Rica.[28] It is also found in China, in Jiangsu, Fujian, and Guangdong.[29] The North American distribution extends south to Mexico, and north to New York;[30] it is also in Hawaii.[31] The fungus is less common in the southeastern and southern United States.[32] It is thought to have been introduced to North America, as it typically appear in landscaped areas or other locations where exotic plants have been established.[33]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

title: Clathrus columnatus

question: What is clathrus columnatus known as in English?

answer: Common stinkhorn.

question: Where has clathrus columnatus been found?

answer: Africa, Australasia and the Americas.

question: What family is clathrus columnatus in?

answer: Phallaceae.

question: Who named clathrus columnatus?

answer: French botanist Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc.

question: Write a ~2 sentence summary.

answer: This article is about clathrus columnatus, a stinkhorn fungus endemic to Africa, Australasia and the Americas. The article discusses the history of scientific research into the fungus.


text:
[Baker c. 1886] GEORGE PIERCE BAKER (April 4, 1866 – January 6, 1935)[1] was a professor of English at Harvard and Yale and author of _Dramatic Technique_, a codification of the principles of drama.

Biography

Baker graduated in the Harvard University class of 1887, served as Editor-in-Chief of _The Harvard Monthly_, and taught in the English Department at Harvard from 1888 until 1924. He started his “47 workshop” class in playwriting in 1905. He was instrumental in creating the Harvard Theatre Collection at Harvard University Library. In 1908 he began the Harvard Dramatic Club, acting as its sponsor, and in 1912 he founded Workshop 47 to provide a forum for the performance of plays developed within his English 47 class. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1914.[2] Unable to persuade Harvard to offer a degree in playwriting, he moved to Yale University in 1925, where he helped found the Yale School of Drama. He remained there until his retirement in 1933.[3]

Baker was also selected to teach a seminar whose unconfirmed title was “Shakespeare” or “the English drama” at the Sorbonne University (Paris, France) in 1908.[4]

Among those he taught in his playwriting class were Rachel Barton Butler,[5] George Abbott, Philip Barry, S.N. Behrman, Hallie Flanagan, Hong Shen, Sidney Howard, Samuel Hume, Stanley McCandless, Eugene O'Neill, Florence Ryerson, Edward Sheldon, Josephine Van de Grift, Maurine Dallas Watkins, and Thomas Wolfe.[6] His _Dramatic Technique_ (1919) offered a codification in English of the principles of the well-made play.[7][8]

George Pierce Baker was the father of George P. Baker who was dean of Harvard Business School.[9]

[1] _American National Biography_

[2]

[3]

[4] Archival source: CARAN, Paris. AJ/16-4750 (1907) p. 67

[5] James Fisher, Felicia Hardison Londré, _Historical Dictionary of American Theater: Modernism_ (Rowman & Littlefield 2017): 113-114.

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

title: George Pierce Baker

question: What was a common theme in Baker's works?

answer: Playwriting

question: What was the highlight of Baker's career?

answer: It was probably his time at teaching at Harvard University.

question: How might Baker's life have turned out if he hadn't gotten into Harvard?

answer: It's very possible that he wouldn't have had the great impact on Harvard that he did (creating the Harvard Theatre Collection, starting the Harvard Dramatic Club.)

question: What were Baker's motives in trying to get Harvard to offer a degree in playwriting?

answer: He probably wanted to take playwriting at Harvard to the next step, and make it an even more legitimate endeavor.


text:
SENEGALESE PARTY OF SOCIALIST ACTION (in French: _Parti Sénégalais de l'Action Socialiste_) was a political party in Senegal led by Lamine Guèye. PSAS was formed as the Senegalese section of the African Socialist Movement (MSA) in 1957, following the breakaway from the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO).

In February 1957 PSAS absorbed the Democratic Rally of Abbas Gueye.

Following the merger of the African Convention and MSA in 1958, PSAS merged with the Senegalese Popular Bloc (Senegalese section of the Convention) to form the Senegalese Progressive Union (UPS).

Sources

1.  Zuccarelli, François. _La vie politique sénégalaise (1940-1988)_. Paris: CHEAM, 1988.

Category:Political parties established in 1957 Category:Political parties in Senegal Category:Communist parties in Senegal

title: Senegalese Party of Socialist Action

question: Summarize everything that happened to the Senegalese Party of Socialist Action.

answer: The Senegalese Party of Socialist Action or Parti Sénégalais de l'Action Socialiste (PSAS) in French, was a political party in Senegal led by Lamine Guèye. Following the breakaway from the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) in 1957, PSAS was formed as the Senegalese section of the African Socialist Movement (MSA). In February 1957, PSAS absorbed the Democratic Rally of Abbas Gueye and subsequently merged with the Senegalese Popular Bloc (Senegalese section of the Convention) to form the Senegalese Progressive Union (UPS). The consolidation between the UPS and Popular Bloc happened after the merger of the African Convention and MSA in 1958.